The Byrsa hill in Carthage had a central role in the foundation myth of the city. The archaeological finds on the hill prove that the Byrsa did have a central role in the everyday-life of pre-Roman Carthage. Using the ten criteria of a city by Childe as a starting point, we can see that the Byrsa hill provided some of the essential aspects of a city. However, even more important is what it meant to the community of Carthaginians.
Introduction
fig. 1: Reconstruction of Carthage
The city of Carthage was probably founded at the end of the ninth century BCE by the people from Tyre; therefore it is known as a Phoenician colony. It was located at the Mediterranean coast in present-day Tunisia. Because of the city's position on the shore, it became an important trading partner to many other cities in the Mediterranean. Carthage became a prosperous city and founded some colonies itself. Because of the Roman expansion around 500 BCE, the Carthaginians concluded several treaties with Rome. Later on, the two empires fought each other in the Punic Wars, which led to the destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE. In the second half of the first century BCE, the Romans rebuilt the city as Colonia Iulia Concordia Carthago.
In the foundation myth of Carthage, Queen Dido was allowed to build her city on the Byrsa hill only. Archaeological research has indeed proved the hill to be one of the places where the earliest settlements of Carthage were located.[1] The Byrsa hill must have played a prominent role in defining the city landscape, but it was also a part of the everyday life of Carthage. It might be interesting to take a closer look at the functions of the Byrsa within the city to see what role this landmark has played in Carthage.[2] This might give us a clearer idea of the everyday life in the city. Later on, the criteria of a city that may or may not be provided by the Byrsa will be discussed. First, let us have a closer look at what we know about the buildings on the Byrsa. Consequently, we will be able to say what people did on the Byrsa hill and, as a result, how this hill functioned within the city. A definition of the criteria of a city and an indication of the people frequenting the Byrsa, will help in answering the question: 'To what extent did the Byrsa have a central role in Carthage?'.
The Byrsa Hill
To know which of the criteria of a city are being provided for by the Byrsa, we have to find out what happened on this hill. Unfortunately, there is nothing left of the city administration and there are no Phoenician writings about the city, so we have to rely mostly on the archaeological evidence. Fortunately, despite the fact that the Romans razed the city to the ground, there are enough results of archaeological surveys that will give us more insight in what happened on the Byrsa hill during the Phoenician period. Furthermore, there are Greek and Roman sources that might help to give a more complete idea of this.
In the earliest times of Carthage, there were necropoleis on the hill as well as houses on the slopes.[3] However, the houses[4] of which the ruins can now be seen on the Byrsa hill (fig. 2) date from the second century BCE.[5] These houses seem small and closely packed on the ground level, but they probably had two or three stories.[6] There are several ancient sources saying that there was a temple for the god Eshmun on top of the hill, that could be reached by climbing a sixty-step stairway.[7] Sadly nothing of this building has remained, but there are plenty of indications[8] for the existence of the temple to believe that it was indeed standing on top of the Byrsa as one of the biggest and most famous monuments of Carthage. Livy also reports that the adirim, the senate of Carthage, occasionally organized meetings in this temple.[9] Other than the temple of Eshmun, the remains of another temple have been found as well as some remnants of chapels in the residential area on the slope of the hill. Besides houses and buildings for religious purposes, there also existed shops and workshops on the Byrsa hill.[10] To provide all these buildings with water, at least two wells were dug on the Byrsa.[11] They seem to have been insufficient though, since several cisterns for water supply have also been found in the same area.[12]
To know which of the criteria of a city are being provided for by the Byrsa, we have to find out what happened on this hill. Unfortunately, there is nothing left of the city administration and there are no Phoenician writings about the city, so we have to rely mostly on the archaeological evidence. Fortunately, despite the fact that the Romans razed the city to the ground, there are enough results of archaeological surveys that will give us more insight in what happened on the Byrsa hill during the Phoenician period. Furthermore, there are Greek and Roman sources that might help to give a more complete idea of this.
In the earliest times of Carthage, there were necropoleis on the hill as well as houses on the slopes.[3] However, the houses[4] of which the ruins can now be seen on the Byrsa hill (fig. 2) date from the second century BCE.[5] These houses seem small and closely packed on the ground level, but they probably had two or three stories.[6] There are several ancient sources saying that there was a temple for the god Eshmun on top of the hill, that could be reached by climbing a sixty-step stairway.[7] Sadly nothing of this building has remained, but there are plenty of indications[8] for the existence of the temple to believe that it was indeed standing on top of the Byrsa as one of the biggest and most famous monuments of Carthage. Livy also reports that the adirim, the senate of Carthage, occasionally organized meetings in this temple.[9] Other than the temple of Eshmun, the remains of another temple have been found as well as some remnants of chapels in the residential area on the slope of the hill. Besides houses and buildings for religious purposes, there also existed shops and workshops on the Byrsa hill.[10] To provide all these buildings with water, at least two wells were dug on the Byrsa.[11] They seem to have been insufficient though, since several cisterns for water supply have also been found in the same area.[12]
fig. 2: Remnants of houses on the Byrsa hill
Childe's criteria
What was the function of the Byrsa hill within the city of Carthage? As a starting point, let us look at the ten criteria of a city by Childe.[13] These criteria are articulated by Childe to distinguish ancient cities from other settlements. However, it is not true that the ten criteria are sufficient to define the functioning of the Byrsa in Carthage. Some of the criteria are especially meant for the first cities in the world, that started inventing writing and sciences. Obviously, this is not happening in Carthage. Besides, these are criteria that must be met by the city as a whole, so we must not expect one hill to be able to meet all of them. Of course, we might want to see which of all these aspects of the city are provided for by the Byrsa, but this does not give us a complete view on the functions of the hill. Therefore, let us take a closer look to the archaeological finds at the Byrsa and find out what functions they had.
Analysis
fig. 3: Cistern in one of the houses
So now that we have all the necessary information on this topic, we can almost formulate an answer to the question 'To what extent did the Byrsa have a central role in Carthage?'. To do this, it might be helpful to examine the finds and see if they meet any of Childe's criteria and/or what their other functions are.
Let us start with the earliest finds: the necropoleis and the houses. They do not meet any of the criteria stated by Childe, but they must have been of quite some importance for the community of Carthage. As for the necropoleis: the Carthaginians needed a place to bury the dead and the Byrsa seems to have been a suitable location to do so. The houses, the early ones as well as the late ones, are important , too, because they clearly show us that people lived on the hill.
Then there were archaeological finds of some religious buildings. The temple of Eshmun is definitely what Childe meant by his criterion of 'monumental public buildings'. As we have seen earlier, the temple of Eshmun was probably even one of the most famous public buildings. And it surely was monumental: a big temple standing on top of a hill as a true landmark. In this way, the temple provides for a monumental public building that the city needs to have. Of course, the temple and the other religious buildings must have been important for the community of the Carthaginians, too, as a place of the community. Together they made the Byrsa into a religious centre. People may have gathered here for religious events and to worship the gods. Besides, if it is true that the adirim occasionally had meetings in the temple of Eshmun, this place must have been of a certain importance for the city's rule.
Furthermore, Childe's criterion of 'mutually complementary functions'[14] may be applied to the Byrsa, too. Although shops and workshops are not explicitly mentioned in Childe's criteria, they surely provide for this criterion in some way. Because there are shops where people can buy products, they don't have to make these products themselves. As a result, they can focus on their own profession and do not need to do these things themselves. In this way, people become more specialized and need others for the things they no longer do themselves. Other than that, these shops and workshops provide for places to work and to shop and due to this, they provide for a place where people meet each other. Therefore, they also have a social function within Carthage.
At last, the wells and cisterns do not belong to any of Childe's criteria, but they clearly are of great importance to the people who work and live on the Byrsa hill. Water is of course a necessity of life and it is used in different professions, too. The wells and cisterns show us that the Byrsa provided for water, as well.
Let us start with the earliest finds: the necropoleis and the houses. They do not meet any of the criteria stated by Childe, but they must have been of quite some importance for the community of Carthage. As for the necropoleis: the Carthaginians needed a place to bury the dead and the Byrsa seems to have been a suitable location to do so. The houses, the early ones as well as the late ones, are important , too, because they clearly show us that people lived on the hill.
Then there were archaeological finds of some religious buildings. The temple of Eshmun is definitely what Childe meant by his criterion of 'monumental public buildings'. As we have seen earlier, the temple of Eshmun was probably even one of the most famous public buildings. And it surely was monumental: a big temple standing on top of a hill as a true landmark. In this way, the temple provides for a monumental public building that the city needs to have. Of course, the temple and the other religious buildings must have been important for the community of the Carthaginians, too, as a place of the community. Together they made the Byrsa into a religious centre. People may have gathered here for religious events and to worship the gods. Besides, if it is true that the adirim occasionally had meetings in the temple of Eshmun, this place must have been of a certain importance for the city's rule.
Furthermore, Childe's criterion of 'mutually complementary functions'[14] may be applied to the Byrsa, too. Although shops and workshops are not explicitly mentioned in Childe's criteria, they surely provide for this criterion in some way. Because there are shops where people can buy products, they don't have to make these products themselves. As a result, they can focus on their own profession and do not need to do these things themselves. In this way, people become more specialized and need others for the things they no longer do themselves. Other than that, these shops and workshops provide for places to work and to shop and due to this, they provide for a place where people meet each other. Therefore, they also have a social function within Carthage.
At last, the wells and cisterns do not belong to any of Childe's criteria, but they clearly are of great importance to the people who work and live on the Byrsa hill. Water is of course a necessity of life and it is used in different professions, too. The wells and cisterns show us that the Byrsa provided for water, as well.
To conclude
Knowing all of this, we can finally answer the main question: 'To what extent did the Byrsa have a central role in Carthage?' It seems that the Byrsa had quite a central role in Carthage on various levels. The hill had at least been an important place for the Carthaginians to bury the dead, to practice religion and to meet other people as we have seen before. It did play a role for living, too, because there were houses and a water providing system. There are no signs however that the Byrsa had a central role in this. This goes for ruling, too. We can conclude that the Byrsa was not a centre of Carthage on every level, but it did play a central role in the everyday-life of the Carthaginians.
fig. 4: Byrsa nowadays
Notes
[1] Lancel (1995), p. 26
[2] In pre-Roman times; when the Romans rebuilt the city, changes are to be seen at Byrsa, too.
[3] Hoyos (2010), p. 14
[4]For more information about the houses on Byrsa, see: Lancel, Robine & Thuillier
[5] Lancel (1995), p. 156
[6] Lancel, Robine & Thuillier (1980), p.18
[7] Fantar (2004), p. 225-226
[8] Like the Phoenician inscriptions in which the temple of Eshmun is named. Fantar (2004), p. 224
[9] Hoyos (2010), p. 87
[10] Lancel (1995), p.171-172
[11] Wilson (1998), p. 67
[12] Lancel (1995), p. 169
[13] Childe (1950), p. 9-16
[14] People in cities perform mutually complementary functions that benefit the whole. Because of the mutually complementary functions, people form a community: they need each other because of their function that is different than their own. Childe (1950), p. 16
[2] In pre-Roman times; when the Romans rebuilt the city, changes are to be seen at Byrsa, too.
[3] Hoyos (2010), p. 14
[4]For more information about the houses on Byrsa, see: Lancel, Robine & Thuillier
[5] Lancel (1995), p. 156
[6] Lancel, Robine & Thuillier (1980), p.18
[7] Fantar (2004), p. 225-226
[8] Like the Phoenician inscriptions in which the temple of Eshmun is named. Fantar (2004), p. 224
[9] Hoyos (2010), p. 87
[10] Lancel (1995), p.171-172
[11] Wilson (1998), p. 67
[12] Lancel (1995), p. 169
[13] Childe (1950), p. 9-16
[14] People in cities perform mutually complementary functions that benefit the whole. Because of the mutually complementary functions, people form a community: they need each other because of their function that is different than their own. Childe (1950), p. 16
References
Childe, V.G. (1950). 'The Urban Revolution' in: Town Planning Review 21, p. 3-17.
Fantar, M.H. (2004). 'Gottheiten, Heiligtümer und Kulte' in: S. Peters (ed.) Hannibal ad portas. Macht und Reichtum Karthagos. Stuttgart. p. 224-246
Hoyos, D. (2010). The Carthaginians. New York.
Lancel, S. (1995). Carthage: a history. Cambridge, MA. (translated from French).
Lancel, S., Robine, G. & Thuillier, J.P. (1980). 'Town Planning and Domestic Architecture of the Early Second Century B.C. on the Byrsa, Carthage' in: J.G. Pedley (ed.). New Light on Ancient Carthage. Ann Arbor. p. 13-27.
Wilson, A.I. (1998). 'Water supply in ancient Carthage' in: J.T. Peña et. al. Carthage Papers. The early colony's economy, a public bath, and the mobilization of state olive oil. Portsmouth, RI. p. 65-102.
Images
Header image: Turner, Dido building Carthage http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/joseph-mallord-william-turner-dido-building-carthage
fig. 1: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg
fig. 2: http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Cartago1.html
fig. 3: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carthage_complete_punic_house_cistern.jpg
fig. 4: http://www.cntravelre.com/sight/tunisia/byrsa-carthage
Fantar, M.H. (2004). 'Gottheiten, Heiligtümer und Kulte' in: S. Peters (ed.) Hannibal ad portas. Macht und Reichtum Karthagos. Stuttgart. p. 224-246
Hoyos, D. (2010). The Carthaginians. New York.
Lancel, S. (1995). Carthage: a history. Cambridge, MA. (translated from French).
Lancel, S., Robine, G. & Thuillier, J.P. (1980). 'Town Planning and Domestic Architecture of the Early Second Century B.C. on the Byrsa, Carthage' in: J.G. Pedley (ed.). New Light on Ancient Carthage. Ann Arbor. p. 13-27.
Wilson, A.I. (1998). 'Water supply in ancient Carthage' in: J.T. Peña et. al. Carthage Papers. The early colony's economy, a public bath, and the mobilization of state olive oil. Portsmouth, RI. p. 65-102.
Images
Header image: Turner, Dido building Carthage http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/joseph-mallord-william-turner-dido-building-carthage
fig. 1: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carthage_National_Museum_representation_of_city.jpg
fig. 2: http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Cartago1.html
fig. 3: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carthage_complete_punic_house_cistern.jpg
fig. 4: http://www.cntravelre.com/sight/tunisia/byrsa-carthage
F.B.
